And you shall count for yourself seven sabbatical years, seven years seven times.

 And the days of these seven sabbatical years shall amount to forty nine years for you.

(Vayikra 25:8)

 

The Shemittah [Sabbatical] Year serves to remind us that the land belongs to Him, may He be blessed, and it is given to us from His hand, and we are just aliens and residents with Him and we should not take pride in our wealth, since everything comes from Him. Every seven years the land returns to its owner, the Lord, and that is why it is called a sabbath unto the Lord, and its grain goes equally to the rich and the poor, equally to the stranger and to the native, to the slave and to the resident, and also to the domesticated and wild animals, for all are equal before Him, may He be blessed. Yovel - Jubilee: this name was used by the Baal-worshiping peoples before the giving of the Torah, as is evidenced by the fact that the Torah says it is a Jubilee, as if it was a known term. It seems to me that the word is composed of yo and vel. "Yeah!", "yahoo!" "yo!" and "yu!" are all exclamations of joy (see my commentary on Bereishit 2:4 explaining God's name). Vel [or Bel] is the name of a pagan god, such as Baal, when the letter ayin is dropped. It seems that the gentiles would shout out this exclamation in their joy, something similar to the practice of the Greeks and Romans. The Torah sanctified joy and commanded that this time be a time of redemption and freedom for the poor who had earlier had to sell their ancestral fields or their very bodies. Furthermore, in that year the land's grain will belong equally to all of its residents, and the rich and poor will become equals.

(ShaDaL Vayikra 25: 7, 11)

 

Between Judaism and Calvinism

Yehonatan Chipman

For as long as I can remember, I have thought of Parshat Behar as the source par excellence for the biblical concepts of social justice and mutual responsibility. This chapter presents a series of sections, from Lev 25:2 on, each one of which begins with the words "when your brother waxes poor..." (ki yamukh ahikha), followed by a description of one or another personal misfortune - a person is forced to borrow money on interest; he sells his home in a walled city; he sells a field belonging to his ancestral inheritance; he sells himself into slavery (i.e., as an indentured servant) to another Jew; and, finally, the ultimate indignity, he sells himself to "a resident alien... or the offshoot of an alien's family" (v. 47) - a non-Jew - as a slave. In each of these cases, the Torah commands those belonging to his milieu - his immediate relatives, the more distant family circle, and ultimately anyone who knows of his misfortune -  to come to his help, taking those steps necessary (detailed in the various sections of this chapter) to save him from poverty, and thereby restore him to his erstwhile dignified position within the community.

Offhand, this text would seem to prove beyond a doubt that - if one may use an admittedly anachronistic term when speaking of the distant biblical past, with its less complex social organization - the spirit of Judaism is closer to what we may know today as "socialism," with its ideas of the innate economic equality of all human beings and the responsibility of the community for the welfare of the individual, than it is to "capitalism," with its acceptance of the inevitability of harsh economic struggle between human beings and the belief that laisser faire, allowing the free operation of invisible market forces, will ultimately maximize human happiness (sometimes quantified as "the greatest happiness of the greatest number").

But there are also texts within Judaism suggesting a diametrically opposed reading of this biblical passage. In a lengthy Talmudic aggadah based on this passage, the series of cases described here are read as the descent of a single unfortunate soul into progressively deeper levels of poverty, interpreted as his just desserts for his own wicked deeds. In the Bavli, Kiddushin 20a,¹ we read:

Our Rabbis taught: Rabbi Yossi son of Rabbi Hanina said: Come and see how harsh is [the punishment for] even the slightest [transgression of] shevi'it. A person does business with fruits of the seventh year, at the end he sells his moveable property; as is said "In the seventh year each person will return to his homestead," and immediately thereafter, "And if you sell something to your fellow or buy from your fellow" - referring to that which is traded from hand to hand.

If he did not feel [the element of Providence in this], in the end he sells his field.

This does not come upon him until he sells his home...

This does not come upon him until he sells his daughter...²

This does not come upon him until he borrows at interest...

This does not come upon him until he sells himself...

And not to "yourself" [i.e., to a fellow Jew], but to an alien; and not to a righteous alien, but to a resident alien ... this is idolatry.

They taught in the school of Rabbi Ishmael: Since he went and became a priest of idolatry, one might think, "We shall push a stone after the one who is falling." Scripture says: "after he is sold he shall have redemption; one of his brethren shall redeem him."

The tone here, if not precisely vindictive, certainly suggests that this person has brought his economic difficulty upon himself: his poverty, the need to sell more and more of his assets and to take increasingly drastic measures to deal with his debts - all these are Divine punishment for his sins. Where then are the love and concern for the poor man that we seemed to see expressed in the peshat of the biblical text?

Our midrash is particularly concerned by the gravity of trade in the fruits of shevi'it, the sabbatical year, or even with avak shevi'it, more marginal violation of these laws. Why is this sin, specifically, singled out? The sabbatical year entails two important religious lessons: the first, trust in God, the belief that He provides food to every creature, even without human effort. On the seventh year one is able to live off the abundance of the earth, the sefihim, the blessing of those crops that grow by themselves (see Lev 25:19-22). This is also the idea of that midrash which compares those who observe shevi'it properly with the angels: "‘Bless God all his angels, mighty of power, who perform His word, who hearken to do His word' - this refers to those who observe shevi'it" (Midrash Shohar Tov at Ps 103:21). Secondly, the notion that "the world is God's and all that is therein" (Ps 24:1) is symbolically acted out during the shemitah year. One year in every seven we relinquish ownership of our land and allow its fruits to be gathered equally, by all people; all are invited to come and eat, just as the beasts of the field come and freely graze (see v. 7).

Hence, a person who tries to get around these laws and to treat the produce of the seventh year as his private property, to be used for trade and profit, is seen as denying God's benevolence, ownership and mastery over the world. One might even say: his punishment comes about because he treats the earth as an object for exploitation, to be treated in an instrumental way, without any restriction or limitation. If you wish, he takes the approach of capitalism to its ultimate limits.

We now turn to the question posed in the title of our article. Protestant Christianity, particularly that school associated with the name of John Calvin (1509-1564), has often been associated with the rise of capitalism. By emphasizing thrift, diligence, and hard work as key ethical and spiritual virtues, Protestantism helped create a new class marked by wealth and prosperity, traits that were in turn seen as signs of Divine blessing and favor.³

Interestingly, two early twentieth century German sociologists wrote important books in which they argued the role played by religion in the creation of modern capitalism, focused respectively on Protestantism and on Judaism. I refer to Max Weber's The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and Werner Sombart's The Jews and Modern Capitalism.⁴ Are Judaism and Protestantism indeed so similar in their social ethos? Jews, like Protestants, tend to be sober, hard-working, and have a strong emphasis on the intellect - factors making for success in their chosen endeavors; Jews as a group have clearly enjoyed considerable economic and professional success in the democratic West.

Ought our passage to be read, then, in quasi-Calvinist fashion, in which the loss of wealth is seen as a sign of Divine disfavor? I found an interesting answer to this question in a book by a little–known rabbi who lived in Denver, Colorado during the first half of the twentieth century: Yehudah Leib Ginzburg's Yalkut Yehudah. In this three-volume set, the author culls sayings of the Sages on the Humash which have special bearing on issues of social justice and ethics, to which he adds his own comments (another volume, Mussar ha-Mishnah, approaches the Mishnah in similar fashion). Writing on our passage, he comments:

In general, one should know that what our Sages said in Berakhot 5b, "If a person sees that suffering comes upon him, he should search out his deeds" - for he must certainly assume that this happened to him because of his sins - the implication is that he alone must think thus. But if others see that sufferings befall a certain person, it is forbidden for them to assume that that person is definitely a transgressor. Likewise, when they see that poverty besets someone, they may not say that this came about because of the sins he has done. As it says in Bava Metzi'a 58b: "If sufferings came upon him... they should not speak to him as Job's companions did to him..."

While it is a good quality for a person to examine his deeds, if he sets about to examine the deeds of others, this is a bad quality. Here too, if a person becomes poor, he must assume that it is because he did business with produce of shevi'it, but others are forbidden from thinking so.⁵

There is thus a clear distinction drawn between how an individual besieged by economic or other troubles ought to look at himself, and how others should relate to him. The suffering individual must search out his actions, to see if there is some sin he may have committed from which he must turn and repent. This idea is deeply anchored in the Jewish faith that the world is not hefker, that it is not controlled by random forces; there is Divine providence, there is a principle of balance, of midah keneged midah at work in the world. God does not act in a cruel or arbitrary manner; there is a reason for everything that happens to us.

But all this relates only to the individual's personal spiritual accounting, within himself. Others, who see his misfortune, may not even entertain the thought that he "deserved it" or judge him in any way. Their task is to practice kindness, generosity and righteousness, to extend him whatever help and comfort, both material and spiritual, that they are able to give him, and to leave the soul-searching to the one affected. This is the point made in the closing comment to our sugya cited from the school of Rabbi Ishmael: "You might think that we say, ‘Let's push a stone after the one who is already falling'? Scripture says, ‘After he has been sold, he must be redeemed; one of his brethren shall redeem him' (v. 48)."

1. I bring here only the gist of the sugya, skipping the biblical proof texts, taken mostly from our chapter, and various marginal digressions.

2. While this clause alludes to Exodus 21:7 rather than to the various misfortunes recorded here, in Leviticus 25, it is included by the midrashic author as it reflects a similar type of event.

3. This also dove-tailed into its theological notions that certain individuals were pre-destined for salvation, of which wealth was seen as a sign - but that goes beyond our concern here, certainly as Jews.

4. Die Protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus (1904) and Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben (1911).

5. Yehudah Leib Ginzburg, Yalkut Yehudah [Vol II] Sefer Shemot (Denver, Colo.: 1933; rept. Jerusalem, 1976), 166-167, and the comment there, §42.

Rabbi Yehonatan Chipman is a professional translator, specializing in Jewish studies. He writes an English language parashat hashavua sheet called Hitzei Yehonatan. Those interested in subscribing or receiving a sample issue should contact him at yonarand@internet-zahav.net.

 

And [the produce of] the Sabbath of the land shall be yours to eat - That year, which is a Sabbath for the land - will be yours to eat, for rich and poor to avail themselves of it in joy without worry for the future. "Eating" applies to someone who has control over his own property and enjoys it. He does not worry while eating his bread, he does not fear for lacking wealth, as we had explained those worries were implied by the expression be'itzavon tokhalna - by toil you shall eat of it. On the contrary - here [Scripture is saying] you shall be happy to eat your grain placidly and without toil, like freemen and princes.

And for your male servant and female slave - These are the Canaanites whom you bought with money. Do not be mean hearted to them about feeding them from the granary because they do not work your land in this year. Rather, the produce of the land's Sabbath will also be theirs to eat.

and for your hired worker and resident who live with you - They are gentiles hired to work for Israelites, or the resident aliens in your gates. They shall also take joy in the Sabbath of the land and it shall be for them to eat, for they can take from the ownerless [produce of the land] and eat.

            (Rabbi Shmuel Reggio, Vayikra 25:6)

 

Do Not Worship Stones

Do not place figured stones in your land (Vayikra 26:1) - This refers to all other "lands," but in the Sanctuary one is permitted to prostrate oneself one the stones (of the floor), for it says in your land - in your land you may not prostrate yourself on stones, but you may prostrate yourselves on the floor-stones of the Sanctuary. That is why all of Israel customarily lay down mats or straw in Synagogues whose floors are made of stone - to separate their faces from the stones. An if one does not find anything to separate himself from the stones, he goes elsewhere to prostrate himself, or bends over to the side so that he does not touch the stone with his face.

(RaMBaM, Hilkhot Avoda Zara 6:7)

 

And I shall grant peace in the land: Scripture continues to explain how you will dwell securely. Even though you will not need to exit the land to make a living, that does not prove that you will not have to wander from place to place in order to protect the land. Regarding this Scripture says that [you will not need to travel], neither to engage in war involving the [land's] residents themselves, nor for a war involving the nations of the world...

And no sword shall pass through your land: You will not be accustomed to use the sword.

(The NeTzIV's Ha'Emek Davar)

 

Political peace will be added to the social peace: all events of war that take place outside of your land - even those close to your borders - will not touch you. (Rabbi S.R. Hirsch ad loc)

 

Readers respond:

I think it is worth mentioning - in addition to all the excellent points made by Debbie Weissman (Dvar Torah Parashat Aharei Mot-Kedoshim)  - that Jewish ritual is extremely sensitive to psychological needs, emotional states and the unconscious.

The desire for vengeance against enemies is an entirely healthy impulse from a mental health point of view and expressing this desire can be cathartic. It can also minimize the risk that one will act on that impulse.

Any good psychologist will tell you that what you wish and what you dream, on the one hand, and how you ACT, on the other hand, are two entirely different things and should not be equated.

I believe that the cathartic expression of these impulses is a sign of strength and psychological maturity in our tradition, no less than the custom of sitting on a low stool during shiva, donning a costume on Purim, or tossing bread crumbs into a river.

Arlene Agus, New York

 

Debbie Weissman, author of the article, replies:

I thank Arlene Agus for her response. All the same, I still have two problems. In my article I mentioned the theological and educational difficulties with God being described as an avenger. The other problem is perhaps less noticeable in the Diaspora, but it is very noticeable within Israel's religious community.

We are witness to the brutalization of an appreciable section of the national-religious and national-haredi youth. Efforts are needed today not only to temper those drives, but also to humanize - or at least to de-demonize - the enemy in the eyes of the youth.

 

 

 

 

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